Annotations for Uncategorized: Patriarchy

Cultural Inequalities: Exploitation, Reputation, and Violence

The experiences of other female family members expose profound cultural vulnerabilities, especially those related to male power and exploitation.

Witchcraft as a tool of abuse and control:
The most shocking example is María, the daughter of Carmen Andrea's Aunt Dominga. Her serious illness, attributed to a curse, caused her to vomit "hairballs, cockroaches, snakes, anything". This curse was allegedly inflicted by a man who was supposed to treat her (a "shameless, lazy man" and a "bad witch doctor"), who took advantage of his position to remain "locked up with her in a room all day". This account exposes women's vulnerability to physical and sexual exploitation, disguised as home remedies and male authority figures.

Grandmother Vítora - Marital Status and Occupation

Marital Status
Vítora is a widow and the wife of an alcoholic, known for her hard work and resilience. José Cabrera would take her to his wife's house—or to the home of a female employer—to help gather grains or cook for the laborers.
According to family oral history, Vítora had four children with José, all of whom were registered as “natural,” as none of them inherited the Cabrera surname. Among them was Carmen’s father Julián Bernal. This suggests that Vítora and José were not legally married to each other.
Later, she entered into a relationship with Juan Pablo Retortillo. From this union, she had several children, all of whom carried the Retortillo surname, indicating that this relationship was likely formalized through marriage and that Juan Pablo belonged to her same social class.
The record found of a Retortillo in Yare dates back to 1751, indicating that he was a slave owner. A Don with power belonging to a lordship. It is likely that in some parish books, some people of mixed race were registered as white, and vice versa; and from there comes the explanation that the Retortillo generation linked to Vítora belonged to her social class! That is to say, perhaps in their ancestry, they took the surname.
Vítora appears to have been of indigenous origin, while José was Spanish.
If Vítora was taken to José’s wife’s household to work (between the 1885's and the 1890s), this supports the inference that she held the status of a concubine—a subordinate position outside legal marriage. Concubines, often Indigenous or enslaved women, occupied a significantly lower social and legal status than wives did. The reason was Domestic Labor as Carmen stated: an inherited colonial culture, where administrators encouraged concubinage in some cases, as these women provided essential domestic labor and cultural interpretation, reducing the need for wives from Spain (although the origin of Jose's wife is not revealed).
Unions with concubines were frequently out of wedlock and often resulted in mixed-race offspring, a class of people (known as mestizos) who occupied an ambiguous position in the colonial racial hierarchy of the time. While their status was subordinate, the longevity of some relationships suggests that they involved mutual arrangements and negotiations, and concubines were likely treated better than male Indigenous laborers.

Occupation
Vítora also works as a midwife.
Before the advent of modern medicine, traditional midwives remained the primary providers of childbirth care, assisting in homes and passing their knowledge from generation to generation. The lack of access to formal medical care and limited resources in many areas have made midwives indispensable. In Venezuela, this practice continued until the mid-20th century, with women giving birth with the assistance of midwives who traveled to attend deliveries. The limited reach of the public health system in rural populations meant that midwives remained essential until almost the end of the century

Nine-Year Engagement

By the time Jesús María declared his love to Carmen, their interactions had consisted mainly of brief greetings. She accepted his courtship on the condition that it would be directed toward marriage, expecting that they would have time to get to know each other. To her surprise, he went directly to her father to formalize the engagement. She accepted his proposal.
They formally began their relationship with his visits to her home, strolls to the retreta in the plaza, and outings to the movies, though not to parties or dances, as she was not that kind of woman. Her father was always suspicious, just as he was with women in general. This talk about the role imposing to the women by the patriarchy, and how they must behave to deserve to be married.
These traits reflect characteristics commonly associated with machismo, including paternalism, protectiveness, polygamy, and infidelity, among others. Machismo seeks to affirm and justify male superiority and dominance over women. Cultural norms also played an important role, reinforcing the man’s authority within the family and his role as provider.

Delayed Marriage
The following year, Jesús María wanted to marry and had the means to do so, but Carmen felt she was still too young and was not in a hurry. As time passed, the wedding was postponed for another eight years. This delay was caused by Jesús María’s financial setbacks, including ruined crops, loss of animals, and the cost of a brother’s funeral, all of which were attributed to bad luck or a curse.
They endured persistent slander and gossip during this period. He felt ashamed about the prolonged delay, and her father often complained, but Carmen did not want to live amancebada. Jesús María refused to have a shabby wedding, while Carmen insisted on having not only a civil ceremony but also a religious one—simple if necessary, but complete.

Amancebado refers to a situation in which two people live together as a couple without being legally married. It describes a marital union or a regular sexual relationship between individuals who are not formally married.
They were so respectful toward each other that they never addressed one another using the informal language “tú”.

Financial Ruin

Jesús María's financial ruin was believed to continue after marriage, linked to "cosas malas" (bad things/witchcraft) done by a woman.
Looking back, Carmen wonders if envy or malice contributed to his downfall, because he had once been generous, respected, and prosperous, yet over time he became increasingly ruined and poor.
He used to be the head of his father' state. But even his own father troubled him with the "peones" of the property. Jesus Maria lost his workers, his earnings, and eventually everything.
Although many women were interested in marrying him, misfortune kept accumulating around them. Carmen insists she never imagined anything evil at the time, but now sees how many hardships surrounded their lives.