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Afro-Indigenous Lives in Los Valles del Tuy, Venezuela - Annotations
Uncategorized
Race
46:50
Grandmother Vítora - Marital Status and Occupation
Marital Status
Vítora is a widow and the wife of an alcoholic, known for her hard work and resilience. José Cabrera would take her to his wife's house—or to the home of a female employer—to help gather grains or cook for the laborers.
According to family oral history, Vítora had four children with José, all of whom were registered as “natural,” as none of them inherited the Cabrera surname. Among them was Carmen’s father Julián Bernal. This suggests that Vítora and José were not legally married to each other.
Later, she entered into a relationship with Juan Pablo Retortillo. From this union, she had several children, all of whom carried the Retortillo surname, indicating that this relationship was likely formalized through marriage and that Juan Pablo belonged to her same social class.
The record found of a Retortillo in Yare dates back to 1751, indicating that he was a slave owner. A Don with power belonging to a lordship. It is likely that in some parish books, some people of mixed race were registered as white, and vice versa; and from there comes the explanation that the Retortillo generation linked to Vítora belonged to her social class! That is to say, perhaps in their ancestry, they took the surname.
Vítora appears to have been of indigenous origin, while José was Spanish.
If Vítora was taken to José’s wife’s household to work (between the 1885's and the 1890s), this supports the inference that she held the status of a concubine—a subordinate position outside legal marriage. Concubines, often Indigenous or enslaved women, occupied a significantly lower social and legal status than wives did. The reason was Domestic Labor as Carmen stated: an inherited colonial culture, where administrators encouraged concubinage in some cases, as these women provided essential domestic labor and cultural interpretation, reducing the need for wives from Spain (although the origin of Jose's wife is not revealed).
Unions with concubines were frequently out of wedlock and often resulted in mixed-race offspring, a class of people (known as mestizos) who occupied an ambiguous position in the colonial racial hierarchy of the time. While their status was subordinate, the longevity of some relationships suggests that they involved mutual arrangements and negotiations, and concubines were likely treated better than male Indigenous laborers.
Occupation
Vítora also works as a midwife.
Before the advent of modern medicine, traditional midwives remained the primary providers of childbirth care, assisting in homes and passing their knowledge from generation to generation. The lack of access to formal medical care and limited resources in many areas have made midwives indispensable. In Venezuela, this practice continued until the mid-20th century, with women giving birth with the assistance of midwives who traveled to attend deliveries. The limited reach of the public health system in rural populations meant that midwives remained essential until almost the end of the century
Marital Status
Vítora is a widow and the wife of an alcoholic, known for her hard work and resilience. José Cabrera would take her to his wife's house—or to the home of a female employer—to help gather grains or cook for the laborers.
According to family oral history, Vítora had four children with José, all of whom were registered as “natural,” as none of them inherited the Cabrera surname. Among them was Carmen’s father Julián Bernal. This suggests that Vítora and José were not legally married to each other.
Later, she entered into a relationship with Juan Pablo Retortillo. From this union, she had several children, all of whom carried the Retortillo surname, indicating that this relationship was likely formalized through marriage and that Juan Pablo belonged to her same social class.
The record found of a Retortillo in Yare dates back to 1751, indicating that he was a slave owner. A Don with power belonging to a lordship. It is likely that in some parish books, some people of mixed race were registered as white, and vice versa; and from there comes the explanation that the Retortillo generation linked to Vítora belonged to her social class! That is to say, perhaps in their ancestry, they took the surname.
Vítora appears to have been of indigenous origin, while José was Spanish.
If Vítora was taken to José’s wife’s household to work (between the 1885's and the 1890s), this supports the inference that she held the status of a concubine—a subordinate position outside legal marriage. Concubines, often Indigenous or enslaved women, occupied a significantly lower social and legal status than wives did. The reason was Domestic Labor as Carmen stated: an inherited colonial culture, where administrators encouraged concubinage in some cases, as these women provided essential domestic labor and cultural interpretation, reducing the need for wives from Spain (although the origin of Jose's wife is not revealed).
Unions with concubines were frequently out of wedlock and often resulted in mixed-race offspring, a class of people (known as mestizos) who occupied an ambiguous position in the colonial racial hierarchy of the time. While their status was subordinate, the longevity of some relationships suggests that they involved mutual arrangements and negotiations, and concubines were likely treated better than male Indigenous laborers.
Occupation
Vítora also works as a midwife.
Before the advent of modern medicine, traditional midwives remained the primary providers of childbirth care, assisting in homes and passing their knowledge from generation to generation. The lack of access to formal medical care and limited resources in many areas have made midwives indispensable. In Venezuela, this practice continued until the mid-20th century, with women giving birth with the assistance of midwives who traveled to attend deliveries. The limited reach of the public health system in rural populations meant that midwives remained essential until almost the end of the century
Carmen Andrea Bernal's Oral History
46:50 - 47:30
Grandmother Vítora - Marital Status and Occupation
Marital Status
Vítora is a widow and the wife of an alcoholic, known for her hard work and resilience. José Cabrera would take her to his wife's house—or to the home of a female employer—to help gather grains or cook for the laborers.
According to family oral history, Vítora had four children with José, all of whom were registered as “natural,” as none of them inherited the Cabrera surname. Among them was Carmen’s father Julián Bernal. This suggests that Vítora and José were not legally married to each other.
Later, she entered into a relationship with Juan Pablo Retortillo. From this union, she had several children, all of whom carried the Retortillo surname, indicating that this relationship was likely formalized through marriage and that Juan Pablo belonged to her same social class.
The record found of a Retortillo in Yare dates back to 1751, indicating that he was a slave owner. A Don with power belonging to a lordship. It is likely that in some parish books, some people of mixed race were registered as white, and vice versa; and from there comes the explanation that the Retortillo generation linked to Vítora belonged to her social class! That is to say, perhaps in their ancestry, they took the surname.
Vítora appears to have been of indigenous origin, while José was Spanish.
If Vítora was taken to José’s wife’s household to work (between the 1885's and the 1890s), this supports the inference that she held the status of a concubine—a subordinate position outside legal marriage. Concubines, often Indigenous or enslaved women, occupied a significantly lower social and legal status than wives did. The reason was Domestic Labor as Carmen stated: an inherited colonial culture, where administrators encouraged concubinage in some cases, as these women provided essential domestic labor and cultural interpretation, reducing the need for wives from Spain (although the origin of Jose's wife is not revealed).
Unions with concubines were frequently out of wedlock and often resulted in mixed-race offspring, a class of people (known as mestizos) who occupied an ambiguous position in the colonial racial hierarchy of the time. While their status was subordinate, the longevity of some relationships suggests that they involved mutual arrangements and negotiations, and concubines were likely treated better than male Indigenous laborers.
Occupation
Vítora also works as a midwife.
Before the advent of modern medicine, traditional midwives remained the primary providers of childbirth care, assisting in homes and passing their knowledge from generation to generation. The lack of access to formal medical care and limited resources in many areas have made midwives indispensable. In Venezuela, this practice continued until the mid-20th century, with women giving birth with the assistance of midwives who traveled to attend deliveries. The limited reach of the public health system in rural populations meant that midwives remained essential until almost the end of the century
Marital Status
Vítora is a widow and the wife of an alcoholic, known for her hard work and resilience. José Cabrera would take her to his wife's house—or to the home of a female employer—to help gather grains or cook for the laborers.
According to family oral history, Vítora had four children with José, all of whom were registered as “natural,” as none of them inherited the Cabrera surname. Among them was Carmen’s father Julián Bernal. This suggests that Vítora and José were not legally married to each other.
Later, she entered into a relationship with Juan Pablo Retortillo. From this union, she had several children, all of whom carried the Retortillo surname, indicating that this relationship was likely formalized through marriage and that Juan Pablo belonged to her same social class.
The record found of a Retortillo in Yare dates back to 1751, indicating that he was a slave owner. A Don with power belonging to a lordship. It is likely that in some parish books, some people of mixed race were registered as white, and vice versa; and from there comes the explanation that the Retortillo generation linked to Vítora belonged to her social class! That is to say, perhaps in their ancestry, they took the surname.
Vítora appears to have been of indigenous origin, while José was Spanish.
If Vítora was taken to José’s wife’s household to work (between the 1885's and the 1890s), this supports the inference that she held the status of a concubine—a subordinate position outside legal marriage. Concubines, often Indigenous or enslaved women, occupied a significantly lower social and legal status than wives did. The reason was Domestic Labor as Carmen stated: an inherited colonial culture, where administrators encouraged concubinage in some cases, as these women provided essential domestic labor and cultural interpretation, reducing the need for wives from Spain (although the origin of Jose's wife is not revealed).
Unions with concubines were frequently out of wedlock and often resulted in mixed-race offspring, a class of people (known as mestizos) who occupied an ambiguous position in the colonial racial hierarchy of the time. While their status was subordinate, the longevity of some relationships suggests that they involved mutual arrangements and negotiations, and concubines were likely treated better than male Indigenous laborers.
Occupation
Vítora also works as a midwife.
Before the advent of modern medicine, traditional midwives remained the primary providers of childbirth care, assisting in homes and passing their knowledge from generation to generation. The lack of access to formal medical care and limited resources in many areas have made midwives indispensable. In Venezuela, this practice continued until the mid-20th century, with women giving birth with the assistance of midwives who traveled to attend deliveries. The limited reach of the public health system in rural populations meant that midwives remained essential until almost the end of the century
Colonial Inheritance
Context
Gender Discrimination
Indigenous Descendant
Patriarchy
Race
Race Discrimination
Women's Role
XIX Century
XX Century